Joy Luck Club :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Amy Tan’s The Joy Luck Club brings forth many characteristics of new world and old world traditions into the reader’s sight. Old world traditions are the customs and beliefs practiced in one’s native country. The novel introduces the reader to the hardships that one encounters when the environment and the neighbors change. The American customs, or new world traditions, seem to prevail in the thoughts of the Chinese-American daughters; thus, encouraging the mothers to stress the old world traditions onto their children. The mothers also try to bring the best of both worlds to their children to make their children’s lives better. As the children mature, they realize the true worth of their Chinese heritage and try to retain to the Chinese characteristics that they have. In The Joy Luck Club, old world and new world traits are gained and lost by the characters in the novel to benefit themselves and make their strength of mind stronger.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The children in The Joy Luck Club gain many characteristics of the old world and the new world that compose new people. The novel introduces us to characters that have lost their inner soul spirits that contain their Chinese heritage. The mothers know that their Chinese traditions and language are a necessary factor in dealing with their everyday life. The mothers also know that the new American traditions are needed to succeed in their new home. The mothers encourage English speaking, but also want to preserve their Chinese language. The major new thought that is gained by the children, and the mothers is the â€Å"American Dream.† They believe that anything is possible in America, and their dreams can be fulfilled trough their children. â€Å"My mother believed you could be anything you wanted in America†¦You could be instantly famous.†(Tan 141). The children gain pride for their native country also; raising their self-esteem and bringing abou t new strength in them. People cannot be accepted in society without accepting themselves. One has to accept their heritage and have pride for their heritage for other people to respect them. The mothers in the novel try to teach this lesson to their children. The minute our train leaves the Hong Kong border and enters Shenzhen, China, I feel different. I can feel the skin on my forehead tingling, my blood rushing through a new course, my bones aching with familiar old pain. And I think, My mother was right.

Netflix Analysis

The following analysis is about Netflix and Blockbuster. Two successful companies with similar target market but at the same time with very different strategies which can make the difference of success in the future or contrary go down. First of all we need to clarify what is the specific situation of each one. Blockbuster is a rental home video company that has been leading the market during many years, since the VHS cassette till the appearance of the DVD and the expansion of the internet. They have had a well-designed strategy which let them growth significantly being the leaders in the market, having in 2006 more than 5000 locations within the US. They basically offered a huge number of in-store movie rental. As it is said in the text their financial success is based on the maximization of the days that a movie is rented. Also it is important to mention that a big part of their revenues came from the ‘’late fees’’ (10% of the total revenues in 2004). But as the times were changing, the customer’s needs were changing too and Blockbuster was in the need to adapt his business to the market. Netflix, being so visionary ten years ago, was launched as a personalized DVD movie rental using USPS to deliver DVDs to its subscribers and using a pricing model similar to the one used by video stores. The following analysis focuses on how those two companies that cover the same needs, they have totally different strategies and by analyzing both strategies we will see how a good strategy and a good knowledge of the market can make the difference and take a company to the success. Basing on the data and information in the case, Blockbuster would be ‘’short’’ and Netflix would be ‘’long’’. Blockbuster has an old-fashioned strategy, they focused all their efforts in differentiate from Netflix by integrating online and traditional in-shop services and by copying Netflix’s strategy of no late fees. Despite their attempts they had significant operation losses and they just grew 5% (they expected a bigger growth by suppressing late fees). Contrary, Netflix would be ‘’long’’ because from the beginning they were visionary, and they were offering what customers needed while the times were changing. Because of that their net income has been growing significantly. As inferred in Exhibit 1 in the case, net income multiplied in just two years (in 2004 was 21595$ and in 2006 the net income was 49082$). It is important to take into account what jobs did Netflix and Blockbuster for consumers. Blockbuster was the leader in the market by offering consumers in shop movie rent. They perfectly covered the need of watching the latest movies at home. They were very successful and so they expanded by opening new locations with the objective that at least 70% of the population have a Blockbuster very close. Netflix though, offered movies but unlike Blockbuster, they deliver the rented movies to the customer’s houses. They changed the concept of traditional movie renter. Netflix was created as a new concept, but covering the same need that Blockbuster was covering. Over time, Netflix grew more and more thanks to this competitive advantage that made the difference from Blockbuster. About their profit models, Netflix reached profitability by investing capital in opening more distribution centers producing more subscriptions thanks to the improved delivery service. As showed on Exhibit 2 in the case, the increase on the number of subscribers was very significant with 107 in 1999 to 6316 subscribers in 2006. Netflix based its strategy in the concepts of convenience and selection and they showed it by introducing the prepaid subscription based model where customers had to pay a monthly fee instead of the old per rental charge model. With this strategy they were be able to have better customer retention. On the other hand, Blockbuster was primarily focused on making the company profitable by expanding geographically, opening new locations so that they can increase the market share. Blockbuster focused the strategy on the concept of ‘’movie night’’, it means that their market is a specific niche in which customers make an impulsive decision and rent a movie when they get in the shop. That’s why they only have high-demand movies (unlike Netflix that apart from high demand movies, they also have old or independent movies). The Netflix success is due to a series of different steps that the company has had to face from the beginning till nowadays. The changes in the customers’ needs and in the society led Netflix to a constantly changing strategies. They launched the platform in 1997 like an alternative way to the traditional movie renters, to provide home movies services better satisfying customer’s needs. They took advantage of the latest hit in the new technologies, the DVD. And they acted like early-adopters of the DVD focusing their efforts in attracting owners of this new device. They were being successful, but they started losing customers so they were in the need to make some changes. And they did. Netflix totally changed the pricing strategy from the traditional pay-per-rent to the subscription model which allowed customers unlimited movies a month. They came up with the recommendation system as they needed to differentiate from the traditional video rental stores offering something that they didn’t offer. To increase the quality and number of offered movies, they created business relationships with the major studios so that they reach customer’s needs. As a consequence of this growth, they increase the distribution channel with USPS. But apart from that, Netflix was having a huge problem. They were constantly losing customers. To solve these problems they thought different: attract the old customers that have canceled their subscriptions. To reach this goal, they changed the unsubscribing policy and instead of trying to retain them, they made the cancellation process as easy as the subscription one. Probably many of the customers that left before will come back to Netflix when the platform will earn more awareness or when just decided that they want to reopen their accounts. So if all those processes were easy for them, the impression of the brand on the customer’s mind will be positive. At this point Netflix was doing well, the numbers of subscription were increasing and their net income was increasing too. What would be next? The new technologies market is a constantly growing and changing market. Something that is being a hit now, in one year could be completely forgotten. With the expansion of the internet many in-shop services will be affected. Services that can be offered via internet will replace the traditional commerce. And this will be the case in the video rental. The traditional video rental services whether in-shop or delivery will tend to disappear because of the following reasons or assumptions: -Internet is growing more and more. Many improvements are being made to improve the quality. -The number of people who have internet at home is also increasing. -Customers are adapting to the new era and they are adapting to new technologies and regulations. So basing on that, as Netflix already did years ago, they should be innovative again and take the risk to change in order to keep profitability for the company. They can’t avoid the new trends, if they don’t follow the changes and they don’t adapt to them, they will disappear because customers will change to those brands that cover their actual needs. Netflix was offering what customer’s needed, but this is changing with the appearance of VOD, and so by covering the same need, they should adapt to the times by changing their strategy.

Who Were the Roman Gladiators

A Roman gladiator was a man (rarely a woman), typically a slave or convicted criminal, who participated in one-on-one battles with each other, often to the death, for the entertainment of crowds of spectators in the Roman Empire. Gladiators were mostly first-generation slaves who had been bought or acquired in war or were convicted criminals, but they were a surprisingly diverse group. They usually were common men, but there were a few women and a few upper-class men who had spent their inheritances and lacked other means of support. Some emperors such as Commodus (ruled 180–192 CE) played as gladiators for the thrill; the warriors came from all parts of the empire. However they ended up in the arena, in general, throughout the Roman era they were considered crude, loathsome, doomed, and lost men altogether, without worth or dignity. They were part of the class of moral outcasts, the infamia. History of the Games The combat between gladiators had its origins in Etruscan and Samnite funeral sacrifices, ritual killings when an elite personage died. The first recorded gladiatorial games were given by the sons of Iunius Brutus in 264 BCE, events that were dedicated to their fathers ghost. In 174 BCE, 74 men fought for three days to honor the dead father of Titus Flaminus; and up to 300 pairs fought in the games offered to the shades of Pompey and Caesar. The Roman emperor Trajan caused 10,000 men to fight for four months to celebrate his conquest of Dacia. During the earliest battles when the events were rare and the chances of death were about 1 in 10, the fighters were almost entirely prisoners of war. As the numbers and frequency of the games increased, the risks of dying also increased, and Romans and volunteers began enlisting. By the end of the Republic, about half of the gladiators were volunteers. Training and Exercise Gladiators were trained to fight in special schools called ludi (singular ludus). They practiced their art at the Colosseum, or in circuses, chariot racing stadiums where the ground surface was covered with blood-absorbing harena sand (hence, the name arena). They generally fought one another, and were rarely, if ever, matched with wild animals, despite what you may have seen in the movies. Gladiators were trained at the ludi to fit into specific gladiator categories, which were organized based on how they fought (on horse back, in pairs), what their armor was like (leather, bronze, decorated, plain), and what weapons they used. There were horseback gladiators, gladiators in chariots, gladiators who fought in pairs, and gladiators named for their origin, like the Thracian gladiators. Health and Welfare Popular skilled gladiators were allowed to have families, and could become very wealthy. From under the debris of the volcanic eruption of 79 CE in Pompeii, a presumed gladiators cell (that is, his room in a ludi) was found that included jewels that may have belonged to his wife or mistress. Archaeological investigations in a Roman gladiators cemetery in Ephesus identified 67 men and one woman—the woman was likely a gladiators wife. The average age at death of the Ephesus gladiator was 25, slightly more than half the lifespan of the typical Roman. But they were in excellent health and received expert medical care as evidenced by perfectly healed bone fractures. Gladiators were often referred to as hordearii  or barley men, and, perhaps surprisingly, they ate more plants and less meat than average Romans. Their diets were high in carbohydrates, with an emphasis on beans and barley. They drank what must have been vile brews of charred wood or bone ash to increase their calcium levels—analysis of the bones at Ephesus found very high levels of calcium. Benefits and Costs The gladiator life was clearly risky. Many of the men in the Ephesus cemetery died after having survived multiple blows to the head: ten skulls had been bashed by blunt objects, and three had been punctured by tridents. Cut marks on rib bones show that several were stabbed in the heart, the ideal Roman coup de grace. In the sacramentum gladiatorium or oath of the Gladiator the potential gladiator, whether slave or hitherto free man, swore uri, vinciri, verberari, ferroque necari patior—I will endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword. The gladiators oath meant that he would be judged dishonorable if he ever showed himself unwilling to be burned, bound, beaten, and killed. The oath was one way—the gladiator demanded nothing of the gods in return for his life. However, victors received laurels, monetary payment, and any donations from the crowd. They could also win their freedom. At the end of a long service, a gladiator won a rudis, a wooden sword which was wielded in the games by one of the officials and used for training. With the rudis in hand, a gladiator might then become a gladiator trainer or a freelance bodyguard—like the men who followed Clodius Pulcher, the good-looking trouble-maker who plagued Ciceros life. Thumbs Up! Gladiatorial games ended one of three ways: one of the combatants called for mercy by raising his finger, the crowd asked for the end of the game, or one of the combatants was dead. A referee known as the editor made the final decision about how a particular game ended. There appears to be no evidence that the crowd signified their request for the life of the combatants by holding their thumbs up—or at least if it was used, it probably meant death, not mercy. A waving handkerchief did signify mercy, and graffiti indicates the shouting of the words dismissed also worked to save a downed gladiator from death. Attitudes Towards the Games The Roman attitudes towards the cruelty and violence of the gladiator games were mixed. Writers like Seneca may have expressed disapproval, but they attended the arena when the games were in process. The Stoic Marcus Aurelius said that he found the gladiatorial games boring and abolished a tax on gladiator sale to avoid the taint of human blood, but he still hosted lavish games. Gladiators continue to fascinate us, especially when they are seen to rebel against oppressive masters. Thus we have seen two gladiator box-office smash hits: the 1960 Kirk Douglas Spartacus and the 2000 Russell Crowe epic Gladiator. In addition to these movies stimulating interest in ancient Rome and the comparison of Rome with the United States, art has affected our view of gladiators. Gà ©rà ´mes painting Pollice Verso (Thumb Turned or Thumbs Down), 1872, has kept alive the image of gladiator fights ending with a thumbs up or thumbs down gesture, even if untrue. Edited and updated by K. Kris Hirst Sources Carter, Michael. Accepi Ramum : Gladiatorial Palms and the Chavagnes Gladiator Cup. Latomus 68.2 (2009): 438–41.  Curry, Andrew. The Gladiator Diet. Archaeology 61.6 (2008): 28–30.  Là ¶sch, Sandra, et al. Stable Isotope and Trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd C. AD)—Implications for Differences in Diet. PLoS ONE 9.10 (2014): e110489.  MacKinnon, Michael. Supplying Exotic Animals for the Roman Amphitheatre Games: New Reconstructions Combining Archaeological, Ancient Textual, Historical and Ethnographic Data. Mouseion 111.6 (2006).  Neubauer, Wolfgang, et al. The Discovery of the School of Gladiators at Carnuntum, Austria. Antiquity 88 (2014): 173–90.  Reid, Heather L. Was the Roman Gladiator an Athlete? Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 33.1 (2006): 37–49.

Questions on Marketing - 1536 Words

List and describe the main benefits markets receive by segmenting markets. Give examples of how these benefits may be realize. The market develops from mass marketing and product-variety marketing to target marketing. In mass marketing, the seller mass produces, mass distributes and mass promotes one product to all buyers. At one time, Sony product only one type of television for the whole market, thus create hard selling. Product-variety marketing, the seller produces two or more products that have different features, styles, quality, sizes and so on. Later, Sony produced several of television sets with different screen sizes and outside frame (casing) colors. However, customers have different needs that change over time. Customers seek†¦show more content†¦The market positioning consisted of develop positioning for each target segment and develop marketing mix for each target segment. Once a company has decided which segments of the market it will enter, it must decide with positions’ is wants to occupy in those segments. Product position is the way the product is defined by consumers on im portant attributes-the place the product occupies in consumers’ minds relative to competing product. For examples, after Sony has been selecting their target market, they are concentrating on what this select market wants. If they are target to the young age, they may pay more attention to how to maximize their product function and catch up with fashion. If they are target to the female, they will focus on how to make they product more delicate and smaller. 2. You text book describes three major market coverage strategies. Compare and contrast these strategies giving examples throughout. A target market consists of a set of buyers sharing common needs or characteristics that the company decides to serve. The company can adopt one of three market-coverage strategies: undifferentiated marketing differentiated marketing or concentrated marketing. The undifferentiated marketing strategy, a company might decide to ignore market segment difference and go after the whole market with one market offer. It focuses on what isShow MoreRelatedMarketing and Question1102 Words   |  5 PagesQuestion 1 List and briefly explain the external or macro-environmental forces indicating how each element can affect the ability of the organisation to compete in the market. External Environment (Chapter 3) Question 2 Differentiate between the core product, the actual product, and the augmented product as these concepts apply in the motorcar industry. Product (Chapter 8) Question 3 Draw a product life cycle diagram showing the sales and the profit changes that occur over a typicalRead Moremarketing questions13877 Words   |  56 Pagesanswers the question.    ____  Ã‚  Ã‚   1.  Ã‚   An interactive, flexible information system that enables managers to obtain and manipulate information as they are making decisions is called a: a. single-source system b. marketing information system c. primary data system d. marketing decision support system e. database marketing system       ____  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.  Ã‚   The function of _____ is to address what if questions. It entails planning, collecting, and analyzing data relevant to marketing decision makingRead MoreMarketing Questions1574 Words   |  7 Pagescustomer relationships. a. Management b. Control c. Marketing d. Human Resources D5. 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The internet may have been the greatest game-changer in the history of marketing, leveling the playing field so that small businesses and entrepreneurs could compete with majorRead MoreQuestions On Marketing Your Business Essay1246 Words   |  5 PagesMarketing Your Business 10 Tips You Can Use This Year To Grow Your Business Here’s 10 useful tips you can use immediately in growing your business. Whether you’re one location or 20 you can effectively compete against juggernaut big box stores and deliver more value without having to make price the single most important part of the customer equation. Here’s how. 1. Make an offer. The success of any ad campaign whether online or in print is â€Å"the offer†. Price is always the lowest common denominator

Essay Universal Teaching for Conditional Education

Although the reforms undoubtedly well intentioned. That however doesn’t excuse that it is an abysmal failure and the lack of acknowledgement accountability for this has left a bitter taste in concerned parent’s mouths. The people who are being neglected the most by the educational reforms are the students; No Child Left Behind, educational romanticism, and teachers unions all play an equal roll in this blatant disregard for the wellbeing and future success of the students. No Child Left Behind is seen as a huge detriment to education process and neglects the students. Diane Ravitch sums up No Child Left Behind’s effect on education in her article â€Å"Diane Ravitch: Obama and No Child Left Behind†. â€Å"NCLB mandated that 100 percent of students†¦show more content†¦NCLB only includes the student’s scores, and excludes the students in every other instance which include when scores are below expectation. No Child Left Behind universalizes the students by trying putting them all on the same level or the norm and excludes those away from the that level. In debate my affirmative case is about universal ethics towards the Other. The Other is simply defined as not you; that the Other is someone else that you are interacting with that can change depending on the situation. After using certain philosophies in debate, I tend to reflect and try to incorporate some of these philosophies in my life; this year it has led to me being a proponent of universalizing almost everything, so there is some significance when I say that universalizing students is a terrible idea. This is the idea behind programs like NCLB that support the universal standardized testing of students. This not a faceless entity that you can simply name as the Other. In a group of many people with differences, it is impossible to group all of the students together, so some will be excluded from this group. 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The Law of Connection can be explained by saying everything we do is connected with the Universe, and it leads to the next step in ourRead MorePraise2656 Words   |  11 Pagesthis essay to analyse the effective and destructive often harmful use of praise as a reward system within the primary classroom. Firstly it is important to explain what a reward system actually is in terms of a primary classroom. According to the Universal Dictionary, (1998); a reward is â€Å"something given or received in recompense for worthy behaviour†. A reward system therefore, is a system adopted by either a class teacher, adult or as a whole school ethos for the delivery of rewards for positiveRead MoreOut of school youth4324 Words   |  18 Pages†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1 Acknowledgement †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 Dedication †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.... 4 Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 Significance †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6 Objectives †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 7 Body †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 8-18 What is education? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..... 8 What is out of school youth? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8 What are the government actions concerning OSY? †¦.†¦..... 14 What are the results of government actions? †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.... 17 Conclusion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 18 RecommendationsRead MoreInvesting in Education Is the Most Effective Way to Reduce Poverty2258 Words   |  10 Pagesâ€Å"Investing in education is the most effective way to reduce poverty† In many ways this is a difficult statement to assess. 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Cultural Determinants of Terrorism free essay sample

Orchestrated objectives within well-organized terrorist groups suggest that principles of organizational psychology apply to terrorist organizations, under the cultural influence of each one (Borum, 2004). There is much cause for optimism in understanding terrorist organizations, for as Alder and Gunderson (2008) write, â€Å"Luckily, we have learned that global complexity is neither unpredictable nor random† (p. v). The call for research has never been more pressing. Introduction â€Å"Terrorism is an elusive subject, evading precise political, jurisprudential, and cultural definition† (Oliveri, 2008, p. 49). It depends upon the definition of ‘terrorism’. â€Å"With over 100 definitions, this is not an easy task; there is no common understanding of what constitutes ‘terrorism’; no clear and universally acknowledged definition actually exists† (Franks, 2007, p. 2). The definition Munger (2006) proposes that is used for this paper is, â⠂¬Å"Culture is defined as the set of ‘inherited’ beliefs, attitudes, and moral strictures that a people use to distinguish outsiders, to understand themselves and to communicate with each other† (p. 131). The distinguishing characteristic of ‘them’ and ‘us’ is perhaps the fundamental belief generated within cultures that makes terrorism towards others possible. Whether viewed in terms of extremist Muslim culture or right-wing American culture, cultural identity supports the conflict of ideologies. Ward (2008) says, â€Å"Terrorism has taken the academic world by storm† (p. 248). The Psychology of Terrorism only became a legitimate academic study in 1982; â€Å"terrorism is far from a new phenomenon, traceable to the French Revolution and the Nihilists of 19th Century Russia† (Franks, 2007, p. ). Undoubtedly, it goes much further into the annals of history than the 19th Century, â€Å"the concept of terrorism had no meaning in history until the modern era† (Bratkowski, 2005, p. 764). Prior to modernity, terrorism was so much a part of daily culture it was normal behavior, without a specific word for it. In fact, for most of Christendom, â €Å"humankind has always provided a justification for killing and instilling terror in fellow humans† (p. 764). It is only recently that most cultures have placed a label of immorality on selective murder to achieve political or cultural ends. Our species has a protracted history and prehistory of terrorism. One might wonder why terrorism has â€Å"taken the academic world by storm†. Insights from Psychology â€Å"Terrorist violence most often is deliberate (not impulsive), strategic, and instrumental; it is linked to and justified by ideological (e. g. , political, religious) objectives and usually involves a group or multiple actors/supporters (Borum, 2004, p. 17). Since terrorist objectives originate within multinational organizations, principles of organizational psychology apply to all terrorist organizations, under the cultural milieu of the organization in question. What is now certain is that terrorism is not a psychopathological aberration, as was originally thought in psychoanalytical circles (Crenshaw, 1992). Terrorist organizations are composed of clear-headed individuals, often with advanced university degrees. Merari (1991) collected empirical data on suicide bombers, and found that psychopathology is almost never a factor in a terrorist’s profile. In fact, â€Å"prevalence of mental illness among samples of incarcerated terrorists is as low as or lower than in the general population† (Borum, 2004, p. 34). This is a clear indicator that we are dealing with psychologies of organization, and not groups of crazed sociopaths. Survival of the organization, a tenet of organizational psychology, has clear implications for the terrorist mindset (Post, 1989), even though â€Å"research on the psychology of terrorism largely lacks substance and rigor. While cultural factors are important, much study remains. â€Å"Future research should be operationally-informed; maintain a behavior based focus; and derive interpretations from analyses of incident-related behaviors† (Borum, 2004, p. 3). The main problem with such a venture might be that terrorists are not giving interviews or taking surveys. Borum points out that â€Å"there is a broad spectrum of terrorist groups and organizations, each of which has a different psychology, motivation and decision making structure† (p. 5). This further underscores the need to be on guard against the ‘stereotypical terrorist organization’: there is none. In a terrorist organization, â€Å"two key narcissistic dynamics are a grandiose sense of self and ‘idealized parental imago’. If one can’t be perfect, at least one can be in a relationship with something perfect† (Borum, 2004, p. 9). Association with a world figure such as Bin Laden satisfies this need; this can lead us back to US culture: promulgation and amplifying worldwide terrorism, via the news media. Bin Laden often makes the evening news, and every time he does, his ‘world stature’ is elevated, especially in the min ds of his followers. It the name Bin Laden was unknown, how much less effective would al-Qaeda become? Media has some degree of culpability, if not complicity in promulgating terrorism worldwide by providing free publicity to organizations and their cause. According to Paul Marsden (CPM, 2001, p. 1), â€Å"the amount of media coverage devoted to these events, by television networks and newspapers, correlates positively with the rise in subsequent `copycat events. This is darkly consistent with the substantial body of evidence for suicide contagion the idea that suicides beget suicide. † If distraught teenagers copy Columbine style shootings, how much more are suicide attacks from terrorist cells encouraged by watching the evening news? Unintentionally but effectively eulogizing angry teens and terrorists alike hold moral implications for the major news media, which need addressing by society. Organizational Psychology provides some insight: if a culture perceives it is losing its ability to contribute its share to the world stage, conflict will result (Rahim, 1986; Katz Kahn, 1978). Considering that entire cultures may feel they are losing their ability to contribute because of intervention of external cultures upon their own culture is likely one requisite to the creation of worldwide terror organization formation. Cultural factors of extremist Muslim society While many in the West view extremist Muslim terrorism as irrational behavior by deranged individuals, â€Å"it is perfectly possible to understand terrorism as a rational decision problem, if we accept the premise that culture matters† (Munger, 2006, p. 132). â€Å"Islamic societies, not exclusively, but perhaps to a greater extent than most other nations, are committed to an idea of the perfectibility of humans in societies, through moral education and imposition and enforcement of moral law (Sharia) based on the Quran† (p. 142). This religious adherence adds a great deal of resistance to compromise from outside cultures, and bolsters the extremist elements within Islamic society. Much of the cultural foundation of extremist Muslim culture is their unique interpretation of the Quran: â€Å"The contemporary terrorist mentality and culture, which are rooted in absolutist, either-or, good-and-evil world views, resist efforts to negotiate. Accommodation, bargaining, and mutually acceptable compromise are not envisioned as possibilities within many terrorists’ mental framework† (Smelser Mitchell, 2002, p. 1). It appears that once a terrorist organization is established, the only ways to eliminate it is either when they accomplish their objectives, to destroy them, or to take away their reason to exist, which will allow Skinnerian extinction to follow over time. The ‘destroy’ method is problematic and costly: how does one destroy an ideology? Islamic terrorists are well-connected using t echnology; their geographic locality is literally everywhere and nowhere. Culturally-attuned uses of information technology† are a major source of cross-cultural influences in the creation and sustaining of terrorist organizations (Bailey Grimaila, 2006, p. 534). Terrorist organizations are expert in spreading and sustaining their ideology around the world. Once indoctrinated into a group, people will generally follow orders, no matter how extreme or violent, as long as the individual perceives that the order was issued from the appropriate authority (Milgram, 1965). Cultural influences caused normal students at Stanford to transform into ‘merciless prison guards’; once given the role and the authority, al-Qaeda recruits mold easily to orders from Bin Laden. Not only do they have a physical authority, which relieves their individual conscience from objecting, but also they further believe that Allah Himself sanctions Bin Laden and themselves in their efforts to establish Sharia law throughout the world (Bailey Grimaila, 2006). There is substantial agreement that the psychology of terrorism cannot be considered apart from political, historical, familial, group dynamic, organic, and even purely accidental, coincidental factors† (Borum, 2004, p. 22). Borum also states, â€Å"Significant differences [exist] both in, 1) the nature and level of aggression in different cultures, and 2) aggression can be environmentally manipulated; both findings that argue against a universal human instinct [of violence]† (p. 12). Diamond (200 4) argues that environmental influences are paramount in understanding why cultures are the way they are. The Fertile Crescent, once the cornerstone of agriculture, became radically altered once all the forests were clear-cut, leaving mostly a barren desert environment. It is interesting to note that the foundation cultures which harbored the seeds of al-Qaeda all come from this former environmental paradise. Therefore, while culture probably has the most influence on the creation of terrorist organizations in the short term today, environment certainly has a large degree of impact over the long term, and might have a large impact in the short term via militaristic or political manipulation. For many critics, global or ‘hyper’ terrorism has become an ultimate expression of acutely depressed geopolitical chaos† (Ward, 2008, p. 252). Geopolitical chaos produces environments ripe with opportunity for recruiters toward the cause of terrorism. Without addressing and rectifying the chaotic areas of the world, it is highly doubtful, that global terrorism will end. Cultures th at feel oppressed or depraved on the world stage may rise in rebellion against the oppressing culture(s), with or without religious dictate. Muslim culture is producing the lion’s share of high-visibility terrorists in the world today (Borum, 2004). One way to understand Muslim culture as it relates to the creation of terrorism is to look at Hofstede’s dimensions. Generally, Islamic countries have large inequalities of status, forming a small ruling group, and a large ruled group with limited power. Hofstede (2001) shows, those Arab cultures have large Power Distance (PDI) (80) and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) (68). When these two Dimensions are combined, it creates a situation where leaders have virtually ultimate power and authority. It is not unusual for new leadership to arise from armed insurrection – the ultimate power, rather than from diplomatic or democratic change† (Borum, 2004, p. 44). Virtually the only method available for the downtrodden in Arab society to express their need for change is by armed insurrection. This is a valuable insight into the cultural creation of Arab-based terr orism, possibly the most important one. Naturally, from the ‘terrorists’ point of view they are not terrorists at all but â€Å"freedom fighters†, fighting with their only available means to enact positive change. Does this mean efforts at establishing democracy in Muslim states are likely to fail? Cultural roots run deep, and are resistant to change by outside cultures (Weiten, 2004), so the question of democracy introduced and established by Westerners is a highly speculative venture. Finally, take the case of a female suicide bomber. It was originally assumed that the young woman who committed this act was â€Å"innocent, ignorant, and of questionable morality† (Brunner, 2007, p. 961). It is difficult for Westerners to imagine otherwise. Subsequent interviews revealed that she was educated, showed no signs of emotional disturbance, and was â€Å"as highly intelligent and more independent than other girls in her society, but still fully within the range of normal† (p. 961). The key point is that she was â€Å"fully within the range of normal†, according to the culture that she grew up within. By not understanding her culture, Western culture had labeled her â€Å"innocent, ignorant, and immoral†, overlooking key factors with which to fully understand why a mentally stable young woman would commit such an act, and more importantly, to be able to deal realistically with the rise of extremist terrorism through a lack of cultural understanding. Cultural factors of the United States There is a cultural precedence of powerful nations to label other nations as ‘evil’: a threat to ‘civilization’ (Ivie, 2005). In the U. S. , â€Å"this is a very old cultural theme, deeply ingrained into the political psyche† (p. 56). This cross-cultural mindset of powerful nations is one part in the creation of terrorists in weaker cultures, a type of self-fulfilling prophecy: the call to destroy the ‘barbarians that threaten democracy’ is an ancient one; Greece and Rome had similar ongoing open-ended campaigns against terrorists, as does the U. S. today (p. 55). The main trouble with an open-ended campaign is that it never ends†¦ another cultural perception that needs adjustment on the world stage in order to arrive at peace in the world. Looking at the cultural history of the US, the ‘savage’ has always been the object of distain and genocide, in order to ‘make way for civilization’ (Ivie, 2005). The genocide of indigenous peoples of the North American continent is well documented, even using biological terrorist tactics of germ warfare; giving ‘gifts’ of small-pox laden blankets to Indians without acquired immunity against devastating disease (Diamond, 1997). Oliverio (2008) writes, â€Å"It was also a matter of common sense that the Aryan race was superior. This taken-for-granted reality of Aryan superiority led to the extermination of millions of American Indians, millions of African slaves bound for America, and countless indigenous cultures throughout the world† (p. 21). Powerful cultures that label weaker cultures as savages are a powerful impetus to the creation of terrorism. It is a recent habit of the American Right to wage war against abstractions (Comaroff, 2007, p. 381). The line between metaphorical and real war, blurred beyond recognition, gives rise to such cultural terms as ‘the war against drugs’, ‘the war against poverty’, ‘the war against illegal immigration’ (Sherry, 1995), and has become the standard of cultural mind-set in America today. Again, the US has a â€Å"militarized world-view extended to declaring metaphorical wars on disease, crime, engaging in ‘trade wars’ with foreign competitors, and fighting ‘culture wars’ with one another† (p. 58). â€Å"Culture wars† is the main point in question: how can peace ever prevail if acts of war against culture prevail? Even the Olympic Games that followed 9/11 became a forum for the core Bush Doctrine (Falcous Silk, 2005). How does the reduction of civil liberties fare with the response to terrorism? Not allowing college professors to speak out against governmental policies associated with the war on terror (Crowson DeBacker, 2008, p. 296) is one form of right-wing authoritarianism that many Americans think needs implementation. A disturbing trend of loss of personal freedoms that some associate with fascism. Taken as a whole, US domestic and foreign policy regarding oil consumption, and support for oppressive regimes, is set aside in deference to critical scrutiny of individual behavior and the forms of ‘moral lassitude’ associated with a culture of dependency† (Hay Andrejevic, 2006, p. 344). So at least part of the U. S. cultural mindset is about securing its own economic interests at the expense of decency and fairness on the world stage. Many people think that the U. S. wo uld never have bothered with Iraq if they had no strategic oil supplies, especially in the Middle East and Europe. This belief can only inflame world tensions further. Understanding cross-cultural inter-dependencies A surprising interdependency, regards the Bush Administration itself. According to Kellner (2004), not only Jihadists are responsible for ‘spectacular acts of terror’, but also both Bush administrations. They deployed â€Å"Manichean discourses of good and evil which themselves fit into dominant media codes of popular culture; that both deploy fundamentalist and absolutist discourses† (p. 41). This is extremely similar to the â€Å"contemporary terrorist mentality and culture, which are rooted in absolutist, either-or, good-and-evil world views, resist efforts to negotiate† (Smelser Mitchell, 2002, p. 1). The Bush administration openly declares its refusal to communicate with terrorist organizations or states, which is absolutist. We know that incentives flourish within such organizations (Munger, 2006). Incentives usually take two forms: 1) recruit members that are prone to obey and please within a cultural setting (e. g. collectivist rather than individualist cultures), and 2) â€Å"Create a set of incentives that reward loyalty, by giving access to excludable near-public (â€Å"club†) goods† (p. 131). Mohammed Atta reportedly was â€Å"at a strip club spending a lot of money, shouting anti-American slogans, and left a copy of the Quran before he left† (USA TODAY, 2001, p. 1). This incident seems to have fallen under ‘club goods’ instead of operational funds, because it was the night before the hijackings, and such excessive cash was no longer needed. This says nothing of the influence U. S. culture had on Atta, a devout Muslim going to a strip club, one day before he â€Å"meets Allah†. There is no such thing as a ‘terrorist state’, in the absolute sense. Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, and Lucca (1988) have shown that national cultures never equate to individual or subgroup cultures, so while a totalitarian governing body may indeed be a terrorist organization, the general populace can in no way be held accountable for the actions of a few. It is a stereotypical mistake to label an entire country as terrorist. It is important to realize that â€Å"both differences and similarities in behavior occur across and within cultures; psychological processes are characterized by both cultural variance and invariance† (Weiten, 2006, p24). Regrettably, â€Å"quite a few nations are culturally reasonably homogeneous† (Hofstede, 1998, p180), and this may mean that a few nations may be mostly extremist in their outlook. Discourses from the Bush administrations paralleled closely to speeches given by Hitler, Pope Urban II, and others: â€Å"an appeal to a legitimate power source external to the speaker; an appeal to the importance of the national culture under attack; the construction of an evil enemy; and an appeal for unification† (Graham, Keenan, Dowd, 2004, p. 213). Kellner (2004) feels that â€Å"the disparity between the vast amount of information freely available to all through multimedia sources, and the narrow vision presented on the major news media via television is a travesty†, and a major cultural factor responsible for the deployments of the Bush administrations’ controlled mass media (p. 61). While arguments that ‘freely available news sources from uncontrolled sources’ might suggest this no longer to be a cultural factor, culture by nature takes time to change, and most Americans probably place more credence in the evening news than the newer Internet sources (Kellner, 2003). Another example of how cross-cultural misunderstandings regularly occur between nations: â€Å"when one cultural message sender transmits information to another culture, chances of accurate transmission are reduced† (Alder Gunderson, 2008, p. 72), and when nations or organizations refuse to send information between cultures as both the Bush administration and the al-Qaeda organization currently do, virtually no chance of accurate transmission occurs. Stalemate results and wars go on, indefinitely; clear contributors to terrorism. Perhaps nowhere is the question of terrorism more complex than in the European Union: â€Å"European counterterrorism culture is a difficult concept due to the fact that the regional level of analysis encapsulates a range of different national cultures. Europe has always been a rich mixture of various cultures, and ‘terrorism’ is a culturally charged term† (Rees, 2007, p. 220), hence the difficulty in consensus. Conversely, in China, we could expect to find a unified definition of terrorism under the centralized government (Diamond, 1997). While China is suspect of â€Å"using the post-9/11 discourse of counterterrorism to cloak their own domestic priorities† (Rees, 2007, p. 224), most of their counterterrorism efforts are likely to gain support with the Chinese public as being in the accord of the countries best interest: China being a collectivistic nation. â€Å"Terrorists focus their recruitment where sentiments about perceived deprivation are deepest and most pervasive† (Borum, 2004). This helps us to understand why American involvement in Iraq actually helps create recruitment opportunities for al-Qaeda. Destroyed economies, infrastructure, and family support (via killed family members), create extreme deprivation, desperation to right cultural wrongs, and enrage cultural dictates for retribution (Borum, 2004). It even gives insight into where al-Qaeda might be concentrating recruitment efforts in America. For youth torn between two cultures in a foreign land, identity crisis may result from exposure to the foreign culture, and the chiasm between their parent’s cultures: â€Å"radicalism offers simple answers to the big questions they are grappling with† (Ongering, 2007, p. ). The human tendency to stereotype will easily adapt to simple answers rather than grapple with difficult questions (Weiten, 2004). Extrapolated, it may be easier to recruit a terrorist, than to prevent a person from taking up the cause in the first place. Does cultural pressure on a subgroup help to create violent extremists? Muslim communities in America, â€Å"Not only had their religion being p resented incorrectly, but its adherents were being equated with terrorists† (Baker, 2006, p. 302). Considering the degree that Muslim communities in the Western world are subject to intensified scrutiny, and even unwarranted acts of violence against them by US citizenry (Ward, 2008), a good assumption is that many young Muslims will adapt an extremist ideology in response to cultural threat (Sirin Fine, 2007), and some of those extremists will turn terrorist. It seems to be a never-ending spiral escalation of one cultural assault upon the other: the ‘Crusades’ continue†¦ It is a real ‘Which came first, the chicken or the egg? ’ question. Which side began this milieu of cultural attack and counterattack? Perceptions run the gamut: â€Å"The terrorist presents a story of heroism and necessary sacrifice. The counter-terrorist presents a counter-narrative of defiance and vengeance, replacing the image of the martyr with that of inhumanity, even bestiality† (Ward, 2008, p. 254). We reminded again of weaker cultures as ‘savage’, and as we have come to see, cross-culturally, nothing could be further from the truth from both extreme perspectives. Another cultural misunderstanding that may have helped to escalate tensions is the perception that the Muslim community in America did not stand up in unison and denounce the acts of 9/11 as atrocious. This initial silent response interpreted by many Americans as tantamount to condoning such acts of terrorism (Munro, 2006). Paradoxically, this lack of public outcry may have been the result of Muslim culture itself, with the majority of Muslims feeling that it was obvious that they had nothing to do with the attacks, and therefore no reason to take a public stand (Munro, 2006). A form of ‘vigilante counter-terrorism’ develops in American culture, which gives rise to anti-Muslim sentiment and acts of violence (Johnson, 2003). One probable contributing factor is termed: â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome† (Pipes, 2006). The perpetrator, â€Å"for all outward appearances, a young Muslim man, well adjusted to Western society, considered friendly; one day, without warning, he acted out an independent Jihad, which injured nine students† (Pipes, 2006). Such unforeseeable and unpredictable behavior influences non-Muslims to stereotype many Muslims as having the same potential toward â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome†. This of course creates an atmosphere of suspicion and mistrust between cultures: how can you tell who the enemy is just by looking at them? Discussion There is no cultural ‘quick fix’ to this pervasive problem confronting the modern world. â€Å"The general policy approach has to be adaptive, opportunistic, and multisided. The conventional problem-solving logic so attractive in American culture—find a problem and then fix it—is of limited utility, and a longer term, more contextualized approach is necessary† (Smelser et al. , 2002, p. 4). For instance, the Global War on Terror (GWOT) as espoused by the Bush Doctrine includes toppling ‘rogue nations’ as part of the effort to thwart terrorism (Borum, 2004). Focusing on ‘nation rebuilding’ of states, that are otherwise subject to deterrent, rather than on organizations that transcend geographic localities and are not subject to deterrent, is a lack of proper cultural understanding of the issues, and will lead to further cultural misunderstandings. It makes sense that if powerful cultures do not make accusations against weaker cultures not understood, or interfere in the sovereign rights of weaker nations, that a large amount of terrorism will fail to manifest by lack of unwanted cultural impetus from foreign powers. One of the biggest troubles seems to be, that powerful countries can arouse their masses which are â€Å"easily pressed into service to rally the nation, quell dissent and effectively inoculate the public against any alternative perspective† (Ivie, 2005, p. 56), the main point being to limit any alternative cultural perspectives as being legitimate relative to one’s own ‘superior’ cultural perspective. This is error. â€Å"An increasingly militarized culture of fear† (p. 9), such as is dominant in the US today, and which has been developing over many decades, cannot reduce the threat of terrorism in the world. Indeed, Muslim culture dictates that retribution be demanded when a family member is taken. Each errant US bomb inevitably creates more ‘terrorists’ (Borum, 2004), cultural ‘deviants’ are created that never would have existed otherwise. Rumors and hundreds of websites have sprung up claiming that FEMA has erected hundr eds of internment camps on American soil is a disturbing part of the changing culture in America today. A Google search of ‘American internment camps’ will pull up hundreds of unsubstantiated claims of such camps, including specific locations; further highlighting the cultural atmosphere of increasing paranoia. Finally, what can help prevent Muslim youth in the U. S. from taking a violent path? According to Sirin and Fine (2007)â€Å"Research that the successful integration of both one’s own culture and the dominant culture, leads to more positive developmental outcomes†¦whereas marginalization, that is disengagement from both cultures, is associated with mental health problems for immigrant youth† (p. 52). Society certainly would do well to address issues of marginalization, in order to help prevent future â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome† (Pipes, 2006). Conclusion While this paper has focused mainly on US and Muslim extremist involvement, state and non-state respectively, it is important to remember that many other states and organizations exist whic h perpetrate terror. Terror is a two way street, with few exceptions. Perhaps the ultimate defense against terrorism is to understand the cultural and cross-cultural causes of it, and with proper knowledge, address the issues at hand. We must avoid stereotypes at all costs, because â€Å"Nearly all terrorists are extremists, but most extremists are not terrorists† (Borum, 2004). â€Å"Long-term orientation versus short-term orientation† (Franke, Hofstede, Bond, 1991) may provide insights into which culture holds greater strength in the GWOT. U. S. culture demands immediate results, and has little tolerance for long term strategies, while extremist Islamic culture is bond by the vision of Mohammed, and is prepared to sacrifice for centuries if need be (Borum, 2004). Fortunately, unnecessary warring between cultures may diminish substantially as one of the biggest single benefits of cross-cultural understanding and application of organizational psychological research (Brislan, 1983). â€Å"It is argued that we now live in an age of ‘hyperterrorism,’ where the nature and scale of terrorism has reached a new level, and that the question of ‘How to deal with international terrorism is quickly becoming the defining issue of our age’† (Ward, 2008, p. 248). It is imperative that we make every effort to understand the cross-cultural determinants of terrorism, regardless of cost. Additionally, â€Å"terrorism is a discourse that affects all our lives, and the collateral argument that terrorism somehow validates the occasional abrogation of so many of our most cherished legal principles, is something that should concern all of us† (p. 249). Hogan (2006) offers: â€Å"Due to the logistical and analytical challenges of cross-national comparisons, studies to date have concentrated largely on single nations† (p. 64). While much work remains, understanding the vast scope of cultural interdependencies that help create terrorism is an extremely complex task yet must be undertaken if we are to come to terms with global terrorism. As Hostede (1998) states, â€Å"constructs are products of the mind with which we attempt to understand and predict human behavior in an infinitely complex world†, and all constructs are flawed to some degree. In an infinitely complex world, we will never entirely eradicate terrorism in its many manifestations. Our best hope to eradicate the bulk of organized terrorism is through scientific understanding and conscientious application of rational solutions, freed from cultural bias. â€Å"Culture lies entirely on the â€Å"nurture† side of the ledger, as against â€Å"nature†, or truly nherited traits† (Munger, 2006, p. 134). Solutions to the specter of terrorism will manifest through understanding and responding to such cultural nurture. This paper has posited that understanding other cultures can help to reduce tensions between cultures, which give rise to terrorism and counterterrorism conflicts. As Munger (2006) points out, â€Å"a shared understanding of something that identifies insiders, and excludes outsiders because they do not share this understanding† (p. 133), is perhaps the fundamental commonality between conflicting sides. If we can short-circuit this exclusionary identity concept, by education and promulgate understanding by either, or both sides, and act upon it with responsible communication between parties, then perhaps modern terrorism as we know it will eventually end. It may take many years, because established terrorist organizations are not open to compromise (Smelser Mitchell, 2002), but such efforts may play a large part in helping to prevent future recruitment, and help eliminate the need for terrorist organizations within the cultures that originally spawned them; losing their luster they slowly fade from existence.

Culture and Diversity

Question: Race and ethnicity are interconnected, but separate concepts that are often used interchangeably. In this assignment, write a short essay that compares and contrasts these concepts. How are they similar? How are they different? How are they related to one another? Answer: This essay represents the various aspects of race and ethnicity of United States. The census of USA mentioned various distinctive race and ethnicity. US is the home of various immigrants across the globe. So, it is not free from racial and ethnic issues. Race refers to the physical structure of a person. It represents the color of skin, height, bone structure, color of hair etc, whereas, the ethnicity represents the persons cultutre, ancestral, language, nationality etc (Kost Henshaw, 2014). According to US census, there are six categories of races. These are as African American, White American, Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, Native American and Alaskan Native, two or more race and some other race (https://www.census.gov, 2016). The ethnicity is characterized as Hispanic or Latino and non Hispanic or Latino. According to Dallam (2014), the genetic structure defines the race and the differences in the skin color or body structure can drastically change in 100 years. Researcher also found that the randomly selected DNA of same person can be similar. This would prove that they are under same race. As in the case of USA, people with black skin color are considered as black or African American. But, some people are white whi le they have ancestral origin from sub-Saharan African. They are also classified of black (Kost Henshaw, 2014). In another scenario, when a immigrants come to US, they gradually learn the US culture and tradition and speak English without their native accent. So, the people of USA fall under different races but same ethnicity. As a result, the differences among people in terms of ethnicity gradually assimilate and what is left with is strata of various races. References Bureau, U. (2016).Census.gov.Census.gov. Retrieved 13 March 2016, from https://www.census.gov Dallam, M. W. (2014). Race and Ethnicity.The Bloomsbury Companion to New Religious Movements. London: Bloomsbury, 295-299. Kost, K., Henshaw, S. (2014). US teenage pregnancies, births and abortions, 2010: National and state trends by age, race and ethnicity.New York, NY: Guttmacher Institute.